By Z. Asam. University of Orlando. 2018.

Clopidogrel versus aspirin for secondary prophylaxis of vascular events: a cost-effectiveness analysis buy advair diskus 500mcg overnight delivery asthma winter. Cost-effectiveness of new antiplatelet regimens used as secondary prevention of stroke or transient ischemic attack buy discount advair diskus 100mcg line asthma definition symptoms treatment. Dissection of cervical arteries: long-term follow-up study of 130 consecutive cases. Dissection of the internal carotid artery: aetiology, symptomatology, clinical and neurosonological follow-up, and treatment in 60 consecutive cases. Prevalence, incidence, prognosis, and predisposing conditions for atrial fibrillation: population-based estimates. Oral anticoagulants versus antiplatelet therapy for preventing further vascular events after transient ischaemic attack or minor stroke of presumed arterial origin. Prospective cohort study to determine if trial efficacy of anticoagulation for stroke prevention in atrial fibrillation translates into clinical effectiveness. Predisposing factors for enlargement of intracerebral hemorrhage in patients treated with warfarin. Ultra-rapid management of oral anticoagulant therapy-related surgical intracranial hemorrhage. Prothrombin complex concentrate for oral anticoagulant reversal in neurosurgical emergencies. Timing of fresh frozen plasma administration and rapid correction of coagulopathy in warfarin-related intracerebral hemorrhage. Hematoma growth and outcome in treated neurocritical care patients with intracerebral hemorrhage related to oral anticoagulant therapy: comparison of acute treatment strategies using vitamin K, fresh frozen plasma, and prothrombin complex concentrates. A prospective long-term study of 220 patients with a retrievable vena cava filter for secondary prevention of venous thromboembolism. Anticoagulation or inferior vena cava filter placement for patients with primary intracerebral hemorrhage developing venous thromboembolism? Risk of early death and recurrent stroke and effect of heparin in 3,169 patients with acute ischemic stroke and atrial fibrillation in the International Stroke Trial. Low molecular-weight heparin versus aspirin in patients with acute ischaemic stroke and atrial fibrillation: A double-blind randomised study. Atrial fibrillation, stroke, and acute antithrombotic therapy: analysis of randomized clinical trials. Should stroke subtype influence anticoagulation decisions to prevent recurrence in stroke patients with atrial fibrillation? Restarting anticoagulation in prosthetic heart valve patients after intracranial haemorrhage: a 2-year follow-up. Safety of discontinuation of anticoagulation in patients with intracranial hemorrhage at high thromboembolic risk. Deciding on anticoagulating the oldest old with atrial fibrillation: insights from cost- effectiveness analysis. Cost-effectiveness of venous thrombosis prophylaxis following ischemic stroke: an assessment of currently available literature. Cost-effectiveness of warfarin and aspirin for prophylaxis of stroke in patients with nonvalvular atrial fibrillation. Prophylaxis of deep venous thrombosis with a low-molecular-weight heparin (Kabi 2165/Fragmin) in stroke patients. Cholesterol, diastolic blood pressure, and stroke: 13,000 strokes in 450,000 people in 45 prospective cohorts.

Friction between the bones is reduced by a thin layer of articular cartilage covering the surfaces of the bones buy 250 mcg advair diskus free shipping asthmatic bronchitis joke, and by a lubricating synovial fluid discount 100 mcg advair diskus amex asthma symptoms 24, which is secreted by the synovial membrane. Synovial joints are strengthened by the presence of ligaments, which hold the bones together and resist excessive or abnormal movements of the joint. Ligaments are classified as extrinsic ligaments if they are located outside of the articular capsule, intrinsic ligaments if they are fused to the wall of the articular capsule, or intracapsular ligaments if they are located inside the articular capsule. Some synovial joints also have an articular disc (meniscus), which can provide padding between the bones, smooth their movements, or strongly join the bones together to strengthen the joint. Muscles and their tendons acting across a joint can also increase their contractile strength when needed, thus providing indirect support for the joint. Subcutaneous bursae prevent friction between the skin and an underlying bone, submuscular bursae protect muscles from rubbing against a bone or another muscle, and a subtendinous bursa prevents friction between bone and a muscle tendon. Tendon sheaths contain a lubricating fluid and surround tendons to allow for smooth movement of the tendon as it crosses a joint. Based on the shape of the articulating bone surfaces and the types of movement allowed, synovial joints are classified into six types. At a pivot joint, one bone is held within a ring by a ligament and its articulation with a second bone. These are found at the articulation between the C1 (atlas) and the dens of the C2 (axis) vertebrae, which provides the side-to-side rotation of the head, or at the proximal radioulnar joint between the head of the radius and the radial notch of the ulna, which allows for rotation of the radius during forearm movements. Hinge joints, such as at the elbow, knee, ankle, or interphalangeal joints between phalanx bones of the fingers and toes, allow only for bending and straightening of the joint. Condyloid joints are found where the shallow depression of one bone receives a rounded bony area formed by one or two bones. Condyloid joints are found at the base of the fingers (metacarpophalangeal joints) and at the wrist (radiocarpal joint). These joints allow the bones to slide or rotate against each other, but the range of motion is usually slight and tightly limited by ligaments or surrounding bones. This type of joint is found between the articular processes of adjacent vertebrae, at the acromioclavicular joint, or at the This OpenStax book is available for free at http://cnx. Ball-and-socket joints, in which the rounded head of a bone fits into a large depression or socket, are found at the shoulder and hip joints. However, ball-and-socket joints allow for large movements, while the motions between bones at a plane joint are small. These movements allow you to flex or extend your body or limbs, medially rotate and adduct your arms and flex your elbows to hold a heavy object against your chest, raise your arms above your head, rotate or shake your head, and bend to touch the toes (with or without bending your knees). The atlantoaxial pivot joint provides side-to-side rotation of the head, while the proximal radioulnar articulation allows for rotation of the radius during pronation and supination of the forearm. Multiaxial plane joints provide for only small motions, but these can add together over several adjacent joints to produce body movement, such as inversion and eversion of the foot. Similarly, plane joints allow for flexion, extension, and lateral flexion movements of the vertebral column. The multiaxial ball and socket joints allow for flexion-extension, abduction-adduction, and circumduction. The joints of the upper limb provide for large ranges of motion, which give the upper limb great mobility, thus enabling actions such as the throwing of a ball or typing on a keyboard. The joints of the lower limb are more robust, giving them greater strength and the stability needed to support the body weight during running, jumping, or kicking activities. The joints of the vertebral column include the symphysis joints formed by each intervertebral disc and the plane synovial joints between the superior and inferior articular processes of adjacent vertebrae.

Drinking of water is regulated by nervous mechanism (thirst center in the brain) together with hormonal mechanism (Antidiuretic hormone) cheap advair diskus 500mcg mastercard asthma kitty. Kidneys are the organs regulated by homeostatic feed back response they are responsible for excreting most of the water from the body cheap 500 mcg advair diskus otc asthma treatment using onion. These three electrolytes are particularly important in maintaining body function and normal water distribution among the fluid compartment. Enzymes, hormones and the distribution 360 Human Anatomy and Physiology of ions can all be affected by the concentration of hydrogen H ion. H Homeostatic maintenance of an acceptable P range in the extra cellular fluid is accomplished by three mechanisms: 1. This task is accomplished in renal tubules, where + hydrogen & ammonium ions are secreted in to urine, when H is excreted sodium is exchanged. Movement of water from one body compartment to another is controlled by a) Atmospheric pressure b) Hydrostatic pressure c) Osmotic pressure d) a & c only e) b & c only 364 Human Anatomy and Physiology 4. The function of electrolytes in the body include a) Contributing to body structure b) Facilitating the movement of water between body compartments c) Maintaining acid – base balance d) a and b only e) a, b, & c 5. Reproduction by means of sexual intercourse produces new human beings and hereditary traits to be passed from both parents to their children’s. The sex hormones play an important role both in the development and function of the reproductive organ and in sexual behavior & drives. By third fetal month it stats is to descend and by the seventh month of fetal life it passes through the inguinal canal. Because the tests hang in scrotum out side the body their temperature is of cooler than the body temperature by 3 Degree Fahrenheit. Next to tunica albuginea is Tunica Vaginals, which is a continuation of membrane of abdomino-pelvic cavity. Each test contain 800 lightly coiled Semniferous Tubules which produce thousands of sperm each second. The germinal tissue contains two types of cells: spermatogenetic cell producing or developing the sperm cell and the sustentacular cell, which provide nourishment for the germinal sperm. Between the semniferous tubules clusters of endocrine cells called interstitial endocrinocytes (Leydig cell) secret male sex hormone (Androgens) where testosterone is the most important. Epididymis: - The semniferous tubules merge in the central posterior portion of the testes as epydidimis. It is located easily over the spermatic cord; hence male permanent (surgical) contraceptive method (vasectomy) is usually performed over it. As it passes from tail of epididymis it is covered by spermatic cord containing testicular artery, vein, autonomic nerves, lymphatic and connective tissue. After the ducts deferens pass through the inguinal canal it free from spermatic cord and pass behind the urinary bladder, where it 372 Human Anatomy and Physiology travels along side an accessory gland, the seminal vesicle and becomes ejaculatory duct. They receive secretion from the seminal vesicles and pass through the prostate where they receive additional secretion. Seminal vesicles Seminal vesicles are paired; secretary sacs lie next to the Ampulla of the ducts deference. Bulbo urethral glands secrets clearly alkaline 374 Human Anatomy and Physiology fluid to neutralize the acidity of urine during the onset of sexual excitement and it also act as a lubricant. Has two main function, It caries urine through urethra to the out side during urination and it transports semen through the urethra during ejaculation. The loosely fitting skin of the penis is folded forward over the glans to form the prepuce or foreskin, which usually excised during circumcision. The rest is a fluid secretion from accessory glands, which provide fructose to nourish sperm and alkaline medium to neutralize urethral (acidity because of urine) & vaginal acidity.

Bicarbonate Buffer A large fraction—about 70 percent—of the carbon dioxide molecules that diffuse into the blood is transported to the lungs as bicarbonate discount 100mcg advair diskus otc asthma 2015 rotten tomatoes. Most bicarbonate is produced in erythrocytes after carbon dioxide diffuses into the capillaries purchase advair diskus 500mcg without prescription asthma peak flow meter, and subsequently into red blood cells. As a result, some of the bicarbonate will leave the erythrocytes and move down its – concentration gradient into the plasma in exchange for chloride (Cl ) ions. This phenomenon is referred to as the chloride shift and occurs because by exchanging one negative ion for another negative ion, neither the electrical charge of the erythrocytes nor that of the blood is altered. At the pulmonary capillaries, the chemical reaction that produced bicarbonate (shown above) is reversed, and carbon dioxide and water are the products. Hydrogen ions and bicarbonate ions join to form carbonic acid, which is converted into carbon dioxide and water by carbonic anhydrase. Carbon dioxide diffuses out of the erythrocytes and into the plasma, where it can further diffuse across the respiratory membrane into the alveoli to be exhaled during pulmonary ventilation. Carbaminohemoglobin About 20 percent of carbon dioxide is bound by hemoglobin and is transported to the lungs. Carbon dioxide does not bind to iron as oxygen does; instead, carbon dioxide binds amino acid moieties on the globin portions of hemoglobin to form carbaminohemoglobin, which forms when hemoglobin and carbon dioxide bind. When hemoglobin is not transporting oxygen, it tends to have a bluish-purple tone to it, creating the darker maroon color typical of deoxygenated blood. Because carbon dioxide is released from the lungs, blood that leaves the lungs and reaches body tissues has a lower partial pressure of carbon dioxide than is found in the tissues. As a result, carbon dioxide leaves the tissues because of its higher partial pressure, enters the blood, and then moves into red blood cells, binding to hemoglobin. In contrast, in the pulmonary capillaries, the partial pressure of carbon dioxide is high compared This OpenStax book is available for free at http://cnx. As a result, carbon dioxide dissociates readily from hemoglobin and diffuses across the respiratory membrane into the air. In addition to the partial pressure of carbon dioxide, the oxygen saturation of hemoglobin and the partial pressure of oxygen in the blood also influence the affinity of hemoglobin for carbon dioxide. The Haldane effect is a phenomenon that arises from the relationship between the partial pressure of oxygen and the affinity of hemoglobin for carbon dioxide. However, when oxygen is not bound to heme and the partial pressure of oxygen is low, hemoglobin readily binds to carbon dioxide. However, there are times that the respiratory system must alter the pace of its functions in order to accommodate the oxygen demands of the body. Hyperpnea Hyperpnea is an increased depth and rate of ventilation to meet an increase in oxygen demand as might be seen in exercise or disease, particularly diseases that target the respiratory or digestive tracts. This does not significantly alter blood oxygen or carbon dioxide levels, but merely increases the depth and rate of ventilation to meet the demand of the cells. In contrast, hyperventilation is an increased ventilation rate that is independent of the cellular oxygen needs and leads to abnormally low blood carbon dioxide levels and high (alkaline) blood pH. Muscles that perform work during exercise do increase their demand for oxygen, stimulating an increase in ventilation. However, hyperpnea during exercise appears to occur before a drop in oxygen levels within the muscles can occur. Therefore, hyperpnea must be driven by other mechanisms, either instead of or in addition to a drop in oxygen levels. The exact mechanisms behind exercise hyperpnea are not well understood, and some hypotheses are somewhat controversial.

If the pandemic is delayed by a few years buy cheap advair diskus 500mcg on line asthma treatment in kenya, we may well have the required vaccine production capacity to minimise the disastrous consequences buy cheap advair diskus 100mcg online asthma inhalers. Strategies for expediting the development of a pandemic vaccine Shorten the time between emergence of a pandemic virus and the start of commer- cial production. This will require adopting a centralized evaluation team to examine the find- ings of the studies and give clearance for the use of the vaccine. The vaccine needs to become established through “mock” trials in order to be able to be expedited in this way – then, like the current influenza vaccine, it is known, and only brief studies are required to confirm immunogenicity and safety. Increased production capacity must be developed worldwide – for example, changing to cell culture vaccines. Another important means to improve pro- duction is to increase consumption – using more of the current vaccine today will not only decrease the burden of current influenza disease, as well as help- ing to prevent reassortment in humans infected with two strains of virus, but will ultimately enable production to be increased. Antigen sparing methods, such as intradermal injection, need to be researched more thoroughly, as they provide for a potential saving in antigen – the 1 µg of antigen (per strain) in current vaccines could be lowered considerably. If we th could use one 8 of the dose, our current 900 million monovalent doses could be expanded to 7. Adjuvants need to be evaluated – if immunogenicity can be enhanced, less an- tigen would be required for a protective immune response. Mock-up vaccines must be developed and tested in clinical trials to determine the most antigen sparing formulation and the best vaccination schedule (Fedson 2005, Kilbourne 2005). Controversies A number of controversies surrounding the development of a new influenza vaccine need to be dealt with (Fedson 2005, Osterholm 2005). Financial – patents exist for the plasmid-based methods of making virus in cell culture and the legal implications in various countries need to be examined and ad- dressed. Rationing – in the event of vaccine shortage, higher risk groups will need vaccina- tion first, along with those working on the front lines to control the pandemic. In such an event, the definition of “high risk group” may need to be revised – will it include children, for instance? Liability issues – due to increased vaccination with current vaccines, greater atten- tion must be paid to liability. Several countries have legislation that limits and/or covers certain liability for vaccine companies – encouraging such legislation will make vaccine companies feel more free to develop new vaccines, and increase the supply of current vaccines. When the time comes for rapid entry of pandemic vac- cines into general use, such legislation will be important. Organising Barnett employs a Haddon Matrix to show what sort of planning needs to be done at different stages of the pandemic, from pre-pandemic to post-pandemic (Barnett 2005). In 2001, the Global Agenda for Influenza Surveillance and Control was established (Webby 2003, Stohr 2005). Its role is to enhance our surveillance abilities, in order to better detect a pandemic, and prepare for influenza seasons until then. It needs to help solve the contro- versies over financing, patents and intellectual property, equity for developing countries and countries not producing vaccine, and rationing of vaccine when sup- plies do not meet the demands of a population of more than 6 billion people. We need an international approach to public funding that will pay for the excess production ca- pacity required during a pandemic. Journal of Infectious Diseases, 1997, vol 176, suppl 1, Pandemic Influ- enza: Confronting a Re-emergent Threat http://www. Influenza Vaccination in Pregnancy: Practices Among Obstetrician-Gynecologists --- United States, 2003--04 Influenza Season. Effectiveness and cost-benefit of influenza vaccination of healthy working adults: A randomized controlled trial.

Like next-door neighbors whose kids hang out first at one home and then at the other advair diskus 500mcg otc asthma pregnancy, the atoms do not lose or gain electrons permanently generic advair diskus 500 mcg free shipping asthma treatment 2016. Instead, the electrons move 52 Chapter 2 | The Chemical Level of Organization back and forth between the elements. Because of the close sharing of pairs of electrons (one electron from each of two atoms), covalent bonds are stronger than ionic bonds. Notice that the two covalently bonded atoms typically share just one or two electron pairs, though larger sharings are possible. The important concept to take from this is that in covalent bonds, electrons in the outermost valence shell are shared to fill the valence shells of both atoms, ultimately stabilizing both of the atoms involved. In a single covalent bond, a single electron is shared between two atoms, while in a double covalent bond, two pairs of electrons are shared between two atoms. The sharing of the negative electrons is relatively equal, as is the electrical pull of the positive protons in the nucleus of the atoms involved. This is why covalently bonded molecules that are electrically balanced in this way are described as nonpolar; that is, no region of the molecule is either more positive or more negative than any other. Polar Covalent Bonds Groups of legislators with completely opposite views on a particular issue are often described as “polarized” by news writers. In chemistry, a polar molecule is a molecule that contains regions that have opposite electrical charges. The molecule has three parts: one atom of oxygen, the nucleus of which contains eight protons, and two hydrogen atoms, whose nuclei each contain only one proton. Because every proton exerts an identical positive charge, a nucleus that contains eight protons exerts a charge eight times greater than a nucleus that contains one proton. This means that the negatively charged electrons present in the water molecule are more strongly attracted to the oxygen nucleus than to the hydrogen nuclei. Each hydrogen atom’s single negative electron therefore migrates toward the oxygen atom, making the oxygen end of their bond slightly more negative than the hydrogen end of their bond. These charges are often referred to as “partial charges” because the strength of the charge is less than one full electron, as would occur in an ionic bond. Even though a single water molecule is unimaginably tiny, it has mass, and the opposing electrical charges on the molecule pull that mass in such a way that it creates a shape somewhat like a triangular tent (see Figure 2. This dipole, with the positive charges at one end formed by the hydrogen atoms at the “bottom” of the tent and the negative charge at the opposite end (the oxygen atom at the “top” of the tent) makes the charged regions highly likely to interact with charged regions of other polar molecules. For human physiology, the resulting bond is one of the most important formed by water—the hydrogen bond. Hydrogen Bonds A hydrogen bond is formed when a weakly positive hydrogen atom already bonded to one electronegative atom (for example, the oxygen in the water molecule) is attracted to another electronegative atom from another molecule. It happens before your eyes whenever two raindrops merge into a larger bead, or a creek spills into a river. Hydrogen bonding occurs because the weakly negative oxygen atom in one water molecule is attracted to the weakly positive hydrogen atoms of two other water molecules (Figure 2. Hydrogen bonds are relatively weak, and therefore are indicated with a dotted (rather than a solid) line. This explains why “table salt,” for example, actually is a molecule called a “salt” in chemistry, which consists of equal numbers of positively-charged sodium + – (Na ) and negatively-charged chloride (Cl ), dissolves so readily in water, in this case forming dipole-ion bonds between the water and the electrically-charged ions (electrolytes). You can demonstrate this with a simple kitchen experiment: pour a teaspoon of vegetable oil, a compound formed by nonpolar covalent bonds, into a glass of water. Instead of instantly dissolving in the water, the oil forms a distinct bead because the polar water molecules repel the nonpolar oil. The bonding processes you have learned thus far are anabolic chemical reactions; that is, they form larger molecules from smaller molecules or atoms.